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+
+
+
+bzip2(1)                                                 bzip2(1)
+
+
+NNAAMMEE
+       bzip2, bunzip2 - a block-sorting file compressor, v0.1
+       bzip2recover - recovers data from damaged bzip2 files
+
+
+SSYYNNOOPPSSIISS
+       bbzziipp22 [ --ccddffkkssttvvVVLL112233445566778899 ] [ _f_i_l_e_n_a_m_e_s _._._.  ]
+       bbuunnzziipp22 [ --kkvvssVVLL ] [ _f_i_l_e_n_a_m_e_s _._._.  ]
+       bbzziipp22rreeccoovveerr _f_i_l_e_n_a_m_e
+
+
+DDEESSCCRRIIPPTTIIOONN
+       _B_z_i_p_2  compresses  files  using the Burrows-Wheeler block-
+       sorting text compression algorithm,  and  Huffman  coding.
+       Compression  is  generally  considerably  better than that
+       achieved by more conventional LZ77/LZ78-based compressors,
+       and  approaches  the performance of the PPM family of sta-
+       tistical compressors.
+
+       The command-line options are deliberately very similar  to
+       those of _G_N_U _G_z_i_p_, but they are not identical.
+
+       _B_z_i_p_2  expects  a list of file names to accompany the com-
+       mand-line flags.  Each file is replaced  by  a  compressed
+       version  of  itself,  with  the  name "original_name.bz2".
+       Each compressed file has the same  modification  date  and
+       permissions  as  the corresponding original, so that these
+       properties can  be  correctly  restored  at  decompression
+       time.  File name handling is naive in the sense that there
+       is no mechanism for preserving original file  names,  per-
+       missions  and  dates  in filesystems which lack these con-
+       cepts, or have serious file name length restrictions, such
+       as MS-DOS.
+
+       _B_z_i_p_2  and  _b_u_n_z_i_p_2  will not overwrite existing files; if
+       you want this to happen, you should delete them first.
+
+       If no file names  are  specified,  _b_z_i_p_2  compresses  from
+       standard  input  to  standard output.  In this case, _b_z_i_p_2
+       will decline to write compressed output to a terminal,  as
+       this  would  be  entirely  incomprehensible  and therefore
+       pointless.
+
+       _B_u_n_z_i_p_2 (or _b_z_i_p_2 _-_d ) decompresses and restores all spec-
+       ified files whose names end in ".bz2".  Files without this
+       suffix are ignored.  Again, supplying no filenames  causes
+       decompression from standard input to standard output.
+
+       You  can also compress or decompress files to the standard
+       output by giving the -c flag.  You can decompress multiple
+       files  like  this, but you may only compress a single file
+       this way, since it would otherwise be difficult  to  sepa-
+       rate  out  the  compressed representations of the original
+       files.
+
+
+
+                                                                1
+
+
+
+
+
+bzip2(1)                                                 bzip2(1)
+
+
+       Compression is always performed, even  if  the  compressed
+       file  is slightly larger than the original.  Files of less
+       than about one hundred bytes tend to get larger, since the
+       compression  mechanism  has  a  constant  overhead  in the
+       region of 50 bytes.  Random data (including the output  of
+       most  file  compressors)  is  coded at about 8.05 bits per
+       byte, giving an expansion of around 0.5%.
+
+       As a self-check for your  protection,  _b_z_i_p_2  uses  32-bit
+       CRCs  to make sure that the decompressed version of a file
+       is identical to the original.  This guards against corrup-
+       tion  of  the compressed data, and against undetected bugs
+       in _b_z_i_p_2 (hopefully very unlikely).  The chances  of  data
+       corruption  going  undetected  is  microscopic,  about one
+       chance in four billion for each file processed.  Be aware,
+       though,  that  the  check occurs upon decompression, so it
+       can only tell you that that something is wrong.  It  can't
+       help  you recover the original uncompressed data.  You can
+       use _b_z_i_p_2_r_e_c_o_v_e_r to  try  to  recover  data  from  damaged
+       files.
+
+       Return  values:  0  for a normal exit, 1 for environmental
+       problems (file not found, invalid flags, I/O errors,  &c),
+       2 to indicate a corrupt compressed file, 3 for an internal
+       consistency error (eg, bug) which caused _b_z_i_p_2 to panic.
+
+
+MMEEMMOORRYY MMAANNAAGGEEMMEENNTT
+       _B_z_i_p_2 compresses large files in blocks.   The  block  size
+       affects  both  the  compression  ratio  achieved,  and the
+       amount of memory needed both for  compression  and  decom-
+       pression.   The flags -1 through -9 specify the block size
+       to be 100,000 bytes through 900,000  bytes  (the  default)
+       respectively.   At decompression-time, the block size used
+       for compression is read from the header of the  compressed
+       file, and _b_u_n_z_i_p_2 then allocates itself just enough memory
+       to decompress the file.  Since block sizes are  stored  in
+       compressed  files,  it follows that the flags -1 to -9 are
+       irrelevant to and so ignored during  decompression.   Com-
+       pression  and decompression requirements, in bytes, can be
+       estimated as:
+
+             Compression:   400k + ( 7 x block size )
+
+             Decompression: 100k + ( 5 x block size ), or
+                            100k + ( 2.5 x block size )
+
+       Larger  block  sizes  give  rapidly  diminishing  marginal
+       returns;  most of the compression comes from the first two
+       or three hundred k of block size, a fact worth bearing  in
+       mind  when  using  _b_z_i_p_2  on  small  machines.  It is also
+       important to  appreciate  that  the  decompression  memory
+       requirement  is  set  at compression-time by the choice of
+       block size.
+
+
+
+                                                                2
+
+
+
+
+
+bzip2(1)                                                 bzip2(1)
+
+
+       For files compressed with the  default  900k  block  size,
+       _b_u_n_z_i_p_2  will require about 4600 kbytes to decompress.  To
+       support decompression of any file on a 4 megabyte machine,
+       _b_u_n_z_i_p_2  has  an  option to decompress using approximately
+       half this amount of memory, about 2300 kbytes.  Decompres-
+       sion  speed  is also halved, so you should use this option
+       only where necessary.  The relevant flag is -s.
+
+       In general, try and use the largest block size memory con-
+       straints  allow,  since  that  maximises  the  compression
+       achieved.  Compression and decompression speed are  virtu-
+       ally unaffected by block size.
+
+       Another  significant point applies to files which fit in a
+       single block -- that  means  most  files  you'd  encounter
+       using  a  large  block  size.   The  amount of real memory
+       touched is proportional to the size of the file, since the
+       file  is smaller than a block.  For example, compressing a
+       file 20,000 bytes long with the flag  -9  will  cause  the
+       compressor  to  allocate  around 6700k of memory, but only
+       touch 400k + 20000 * 7 = 540 kbytes of it.  Similarly, the
+       decompressor  will  allocate  4600k  but only touch 100k +
+       20000 * 5 = 200 kbytes.
+
+       Here is a table which summarises the maximum memory  usage
+       for  different  block  sizes.   Also recorded is the total
+       compressed size for 14 files of the Calgary Text  Compres-
+       sion  Corpus totalling 3,141,622 bytes.  This column gives
+       some feel for how  compression  varies  with  block  size.
+       These  figures  tend to understate the advantage of larger
+       block sizes for larger files, since the  Corpus  is  domi-
+       nated by smaller files.
+
+                  Compress   Decompress   Decompress   Corpus
+           Flag     usage      usage       -s usage     Size
+
+            -1      1100k       600k         350k      914704
+            -2      1800k      1100k         600k      877703
+            -3      2500k      1600k         850k      860338
+            -4      3200k      2100k        1100k      846899
+            -5      3900k      2600k        1350k      845160
+            -6      4600k      3100k        1600k      838626
+            -7      5400k      3600k        1850k      834096
+            -8      6000k      4100k        2100k      828642
+            -9      6700k      4600k        2350k      828642
+
+
+OOPPTTIIOONNSS
+       --cc ----ssttddoouutt
+              Compress or decompress to standard output.  -c will
+              decompress multiple files to stdout, but will  only
+              compress a single file to stdout.
+
+
+
+
+
+                                                                3
+
+
+
+
+
+bzip2(1)                                                 bzip2(1)
+
+
+       --dd ----ddeeccoommpprreessss
+              Force  decompression.  _B_z_i_p_2 and _b_u_n_z_i_p_2 are really
+              the same program, and the decision about whether to
+              compress  or  decompress  is  done  on the basis of
+              which name is used.  This flag overrides that mech-
+              anism, and forces _b_z_i_p_2 to decompress.
+
+       --ff ----ccoommpprreessss
+              The  complement  to -d: forces compression, regard-
+              less of the invokation name.
+
+       --tt ----tteesstt
+              Check integrity of the specified file(s), but don't
+              decompress  them.   This  really  performs  a trial
+              decompression and throws away the result, using the
+              low-memory decompression algorithm (see -s).
+
+       --kk ----kkeeeepp
+              Keep  (don't delete) input files during compression
+              or decompression.
+
+       --ss ----ssmmaallll
+              Reduce  memory  usage,  both  for  compression  and
+              decompression.  Files are decompressed using a mod-
+              ified algorithm which only requires 2.5  bytes  per
+              block  byte.   This  means  any  file can be decom-
+              pressed in 2300k of memory,  albeit  somewhat  more
+              slowly than usual.
+
+              During  compression,  -s  selects  a  block size of
+              200k, which limits memory use to  around  the  same
+              figure,  at  the expense of your compression ratio.
+              In short, if your  machine  is  low  on  memory  (8
+              megabytes  or  less),  use  -s for everything.  See
+              MEMORY MANAGEMENT above.
+
+
+       --vv ----vveerrbboossee
+              Verbose mode -- show the compression ratio for each
+              file  processed.   Further  -v's  increase the ver-
+              bosity level, spewing out lots of information which
+              is primarily of interest for diagnostic purposes.
+
+       --LL ----lliicceennssee
+              Display  the  software  version,  license terms and
+              conditions.
+
+       --VV ----vveerrssiioonn
+              Same as -L.
+
+       --11 ttoo --99
+              Set the block size to 100 k, 200 k ..  900  k  when
+              compressing.   Has  no  effect  when decompressing.
+              See MEMORY MANAGEMENT above.
+
+
+
+                                                                4
+
+
+
+
+
+bzip2(1)                                                 bzip2(1)
+
+
+       ----rreeppeettiittiivvee--ffaasstt
+              _b_z_i_p_2 injects some small  pseudo-random  variations
+              into  very  repetitive  blocks  to limit worst-case
+              performance during compression.   If  sorting  runs
+              into  difficulties,  the  block  is randomised, and
+              sorting is restarted.  Very roughly, _b_z_i_p_2 persists
+              for  three  times  as  long as a well-behaved input
+              would take before resorting to randomisation.  This
+              flag makes it give up much sooner.
+
+
+       ----rreeppeettiittiivvee--bbeesstt
+              Opposite  of  --repetitive-fast;  try  a lot harder
+              before resorting to randomisation.
+
+
+RREECCOOVVEERRIINNGG DDAATTAA FFRROOMM DDAAMMAAGGEEDD FFIILLEESS
+       _b_z_i_p_2 compresses files in blocks, usually 900kbytes  long.
+       Each block is handled independently.  If a media or trans-
+       mission error causes a multi-block  .bz2  file  to  become
+       damaged,  it  may  be  possible  to  recover data from the
+       undamaged blocks in the file.
+
+       The compressed representation of each block  is  delimited
+       by  a  48-bit pattern, which makes it possible to find the
+       block boundaries with reasonable  certainty.   Each  block
+       also  carries its own 32-bit CRC, so damaged blocks can be
+       distinguished from undamaged ones.
+
+       _b_z_i_p_2_r_e_c_o_v_e_r is a  simple  program  whose  purpose  is  to
+       search  for blocks in .bz2 files, and write each block out
+       into its own .bz2 file.  You can then use _b_z_i_p_2 _-_t to test
+       the integrity of the resulting files, and decompress those
+       which are undamaged.
+
+       _b_z_i_p_2_r_e_c_o_v_e_r takes a single argument, the name of the dam-
+       aged file, and writes a number of files "rec0001file.bz2",
+       "rec0002file.bz2", etc, containing the  extracted  blocks.
+       The output filenames are designed so that the use of wild-
+       cards in subsequent processing -- for example, "bzip2  -dc
+       rec*file.bz2  >  recovered_data" -- lists the files in the
+       "right" order.
+
+       _b_z_i_p_2_r_e_c_o_v_e_r should be of most use dealing with large .bz2
+       files,  as  these will contain many blocks.  It is clearly
+       futile to use it on damaged single-block  files,  since  a
+       damaged  block  cannot  be recovered.  If you wish to min-
+       imise any potential data loss through media  or  transmis-
+       sion errors, you might consider compressing with a smaller
+       block size.
+
+
+PPEERRFFOORRMMAANNCCEE NNOOTTEESS
+       The sorting phase of compression gathers together  similar
+
+
+
+                                                                5
+
+
+
+
+
+bzip2(1)                                                 bzip2(1)
+
+
+       strings  in  the  file.  Because of this, files containing
+       very long runs of  repeated  symbols,  like  "aabaabaabaab
+       ..."   (repeated   several  hundred  times)  may  compress
+       extraordinarily slowly.  You can use the -vvvvv option  to
+       monitor progress in great detail, if you want.  Decompres-
+       sion speed is unaffected.
+
+       Such pathological cases seem rare in  practice,  appearing
+       mostly in artificially-constructed test files, and in low-
+       level disk images.  It may be inadvisable to use _b_z_i_p_2  to
+       compress  the  latter.   If you do get a file which causes
+       severe slowness in compression, try making the block  size
+       as small as possible, with flag -1.
+
+       Incompressible or virtually-incompressible data may decom-
+       press rather more slowly than one would hope.  This is due
+       to a naive implementation of the move-to-front coder.
+
+       _b_z_i_p_2  usually  allocates  several  megabytes of memory to
+       operate in, and then charges all over it in a fairly  ran-
+       dom  fashion.   This means that performance, both for com-
+       pressing and decompressing, is largely determined  by  the
+       speed  at  which  your  machine  can service cache misses.
+       Because of this, small changes to the code to  reduce  the
+       miss  rate  have  been observed to give disproportionately
+       large performance improvements.  I imagine _b_z_i_p_2 will per-
+       form best on machines with very large caches.
+
+       Test mode (-t) uses the low-memory decompression algorithm
+       (-s).  This means test mode does not run  as  fast  as  it
+       could;  it  could  run as fast as the normal decompression
+       machinery.  This could easily be fixed at the cost of some
+       code bloat.
+
+
+CCAAVVEEAATTSS
+       I/O  error  messages  are not as helpful as they could be.
+       _B_z_i_p_2 tries hard to detect I/O errors  and  exit  cleanly,
+       but  the  details  of  what  the problem is sometimes seem
+       rather misleading.
+
+       This manual page pertains to version 0.1 of _b_z_i_p_2_.  It may
+       well  happen that some future version will use a different
+       compressed file format.  If you try to  decompress,  using
+       0.1,  a  .bz2  file created with some future version which
+       uses a different compressed file format, 0.1 will complain
+       that  your  file  "is not a bzip2 file".  If that happens,
+       you should obtain a more recent version of _b_z_i_p_2  and  use
+       that to decompress the file.
+
+       Wildcard expansion for Windows 95 and NT is flaky.
+
+       _b_z_i_p_2_r_e_c_o_v_e_r  uses  32-bit integers to represent bit posi-
+       tions in compressed files, so it cannot handle  compressed
+
+
+
+                                                                6
+
+
+
+
+
+bzip2(1)                                                 bzip2(1)
+
+
+       files  more than 512 megabytes long.  This could easily be
+       fixed.
+
+       _b_z_i_p_2_r_e_c_o_v_e_r sometimes reports a  very  small,  incomplete
+       final  block.  This is spurious and can be safely ignored.
+
+
+RREELLAATTIIOONNSSHHIIPP TTOO bbzziipp--00..2211
+       This program is a descendant of the _b_z_i_p program,  version
+       0.21,  which  I released in August 1996.  The primary dif-
+       ference of _b_z_i_p_2 is its avoidance of the possibly patented
+       algorithms  which  were  used  in 0.21.  _b_z_i_p_2 also brings
+       various useful refinements (-s,  -t),  uses  less  memory,
+       decompresses  significantly  faster,  and  has support for
+       recovering data from damaged files.
+
+       Because _b_z_i_p_2 uses Huffman coding to  construct  the  com-
+       pressed  bitstream, rather than the arithmetic coding used
+       in 0.21, the compressed representations generated  by  the
+       two  programs are incompatible, and they will not interop-
+       erate.  The change in suffix from  .bz  to  .bz2  reflects
+       this.   It would have been helpful to at least allow _b_z_i_p_2
+       to decompress files created by 0.21, but this would defeat
+       the primary aim of having a patent-free compressor.
+
+       Huffman  coding  necessarily  involves some coding ineffi-
+       ciency compared to arithmetic  coding.   This  means  that
+       _b_z_i_p_2  compresses about 1% worse than 0.21, an unfortunate
+       but unavoidable fact-of-life.  On the other  hand,  decom-
+       pression  is approximately 50% faster for the same reason,
+       and the change in file format gave an opportunity  to  add
+       data-recovery features.  So it is not all bad.
+
+
+AAUUTTHHOORR
+       Julian Seward, jseward@acm.org.
+
+       The ideas embodied in _b_z_i_p and _b_z_i_p_2 are due to (at least)
+       the following people: Michael Burrows  and  David  Wheeler
+       (for  the  block  sorting  transformation),  David Wheeler
+       (again, for the Huffman coder),  Peter  Fenwick  (for  the
+       structured  coding  model  in 0.21, and many refinements),
+       and Alistair Moffat, Radford Neal and Ian Witten (for  the
+       arithmetic  coder  in 0.21).  I am much indebted for their
+       help, support and advice.  See the file ALGORITHMS in  the
+       source  distribution for pointers to sources of documenta-
+       tion.  Christian von Roques  encouraged  me  to  look  for
+       faster  sorting algorithms, so as to speed up compression.
+       Bela Lubkin encouraged me to improve the  worst-case  com-
+       pression  performance.   Many  people sent patches, helped
+       with portability problems, lent machines, gave advice  and
+       were generally helpful.
+
+
+
+
+
+                                                                7
+
+